Homosexuality
From Encyclopedia of Sex and Sexuality
Contents |
[edit] Causes and Theories
The causes of male and female homosexuality have been debated for at least two thousand years. While the question of what makes people homosexual may, at first glance, seem simple, the answer is shrouded in controversy. For instance, we have not yet settled the “essentialist versus constructionist” argument. Essentialists say that a homosexual identity (in contrast to homosexual behavior) has always existed, and they ascribe it to a biological origin. Constructionists, on the other hand, believe that the concept of being a homosexual, as someone different from other people, is relatively new, having emerged only in the past few hundred years. Neither of these theories denies that homosexual behavior has always existed and that we have records and paintings of homosexual behavior from thousands of years ago. The question is whether in ancient times those people thought of themselves as being different from their contemporaries—as being “homosexual” in the way we think of it.
The oldest biological theory was proposed by Aristotle, who wrote that men who like to be sodomized have an extra nerve running down the spinal cord and ending in the rectum. Stimulation to the rectum causes pleasure during anal intercourse. It is interesting to note that Aristotle did not find it necessary to explain the behavior of the inserter. The oldest psychological theory was formulated by Persian physicians, who suggested that a man’s preference for boys (rather than women) depended upon how he learned to masturbate. Men who held their penises tightly came to like boys, while those who were more gentle preferred women.
As charming as these theories may be, we now know that they are incorrect. But during the past hundred years, other biological and social theories about the causes of homosexuality have been espoused. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, a biological explanation dominated. Homosexuality in both men and women was considered a form of degeneracy that would eventually lead to madness. In this century, especially after World War II, biological explanations waned in popularity, and were replaced by a number of psychoanalytic theories. Recently, biological theories have experienced a resurgence.
Sigmund Freud, the originator of psychoanalysis, believed that homosexuality in a man developed when a boy identified with his mother, rather than his father, at about the age of five or six. In the 1940s other psychoanalysts suggested that a particular family constellation produced homosexuals. They said that gay men were phobic toward women because their mothers were emotionally engulfing, while their fathers were hostile. There is no evidence that either of these psychoanalytic theories is true, and considerable evidence tends to show that they are wrong. Nonetheless, there are people who continue to believe them.
Most research done during the past twenty-five years has focused on the biological origins of homosexual behavior and includes studies on hormones, genes, and anatomy. Hormonal research has studied the differences in androgens (male hormones) and estrogens (female hormones) in homosexuals and heterosexuals. Although results showed no differences between the two groups, clinicians often gave androgen injections to male homosexuals in the belief that a shot of masculinity would change them from gay to straight (heterosexual). It did not succeed.
Genetic studies have focused on the concordance rates of sexual orientation of both monozygotic (formed from the same egg) and dizygotic (formed from separate eggs) twins. Since monozygotic (identical) twins have exactly the same genetic makeup, if sexual orientation is inherited, these twins should have exactly the same sexual orientation (a 100 percent concordance rate). On the other hand, dizygotic twins should have a lower concordance rate. The lowest concordance rate should be between non-twin brothers and sisters. The results of these studies have shown the concordance rate of homosexuality is 50 to 55 percent in monozygotic twins, about 20 percent in dizygotic twins, and only about 8 percent between brothers and sisters. A strong inheritable factor is therefore established, but it does not account for all cases. Something more than heredity must be involved.
Anatomical studies have looked at the brain structures of homosexuals and heterosexuals. In some cases, differences have been found, but the origin of these differences is unknown. It is possible that they began prenatally. One researcher has suggested that brain structure differences between homosexuals and heterosexuals begin at about the fourth or fifth month of gestation, and once set are unalterable. This research is very speculative at this time.
While gay men are mostly comfortable about biological research, many lesbians are not. Some lesbians feel that their homosexuality is a choice, not a condition, and certainly not a biological impulse. Some maintain that they chose lesbianism for political reasons, as a way of rejecting patriarchal society.
[edit] See also
[edit] Cultural Attitudes
Individual attitudes toward homosexuality grow out of the cultural beliefs of the larger society, and are rooted in ethnicity, tradition, religion, and social class. There may be considerable variation in the degree of acceptance or toleration of homosexuality, within the society or even within a particular cultural group, however, and historians have noted substantial changes in group attitudes over time.
In some countries there is now near complete acceptance of homosexuality. For example, in the late 1980s Denmark passed a law permitting homosexual couples to legally marry. Although Holland, Norway, and Sweden do not legally sanction marriage, homosexual relationships in those countries are generally well respected and are incorporated into the social structure like heterosexual couples. Nevertheless, even in such countries many homosexuals still feel a need to hide their true feelings, while in other countries homosexual behavior is severely punished.
Legal attitudes towards homosexuality in the United States vary by state. Two states—Massachusetts and Minnesota—and many cities have enacted legislation to prohibit discrimination against homosexuals, while in other jurisdictions (e.g., Georgia) homosexual sex is punishable by law. However, laws against homosexual behavior are rarely used, and when tested in courts they are often found to be unenforceable.
Religious attitudes vary by denomination, locale, and time. Episcopalians, for example, have recently voiced support for male and female priests who are openly homosexual, and many parishes have hired them. While most Baptist groups believe homosexuality to be a sin, one Baptist church recently hired an openly homosexual minister. Roman Catholicism currently holds homosexual behavior to be a sin; however, in the early Middle Ages Roman Catholics found little wrong with homosexual behavior (see Boswell’s Christianity, Homosexuality, and Social Tolerance). Thus, taboos now said by some religious denominations to be based on the Bible were not considered sinful according to earlier interpretations of biblical writings.
Although early professional literature considered homosexual feelings and behavior abnormal and a sign of arrested psychosocial development, in the 1970s many psychiatrists changed their attitude. Rather than judging homosexuality to be an illness, they now came to regard it as a normal (although minority) variation of sexual behavior. This decision resulted from a more scientific appraisal of the biases present in older “studies” of homosexuals (mostly by psychiatrists reporting on homosexual patients understandably troubled by their situation within society) and from growing anthropological and biological evidence of sexual variation in societies and within many mammalian species. The reclassification, however, remains contested by a minority of psychiatrists. Despite the reversal in attitudes, many homosexuals are troubled by their feelings and desired or actual behaviors; given the high prevalence of antihomosexual feelings in the society, they may be diagnosed as suffering from “ego-dystonic homosexuality.”
Anthropologists (e.g., Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa) and historians (Boswell’s Christianity, Sociology, and Homosexuality) have described homosexual encounters in other societies as normal and expected. In ancient Greece homosexuality was a common practice; however, male homosexual relationships usually involved older adult men initiating and maintaining active relationships with younger men. For older men to play a passive sexual role was deemed unusual and discouraged.
To the extent that the larger society and culture hold negative attitudes toward them, homosexual persons will be less able or willing to “come out” (see coming out) and may remain “closeted.” Strongly negative attitudes about homosexuals may severely limit their ability to recognize, accept, or express internal feelings, creating confusion or even self-loathing. If society’s negative attitudes are strongly internalized, they may lead homosexuals to depression or even suicide. The high prevalence of both have, in fact, been documented in homosexual men of the San Francisco Bay area. These prevalences are more likely the result of homophobia (society’s fear or negative attitudes to homosexuals) than intrinsic to homosexuality per se. (However, these findings may also be the result of biases introduced by the sampling designs of the studies.) Suicidal behavior is even more common among gay adolescents, resulting in calls for better education of youth about the nature of homosexuality and variation of human sexual objectives. Finally, there has long been evidence of overt hostility and violence aimed at homosexuals—gay and lesbian “bashing” has increased in association with the AIDS epidemic.
Since it is possible to change popular cultural attitudes through education, leadership behavior, and the law, and since the preponderance of evidence suggests that many men and women will continue to be sexually attracted to their own sex, it appears to be very much in society’s interest to develop healthier attitudes toward homosexuality. Such attitudes would decrease violence towards sexual minority persons, diminish their need to hide feelings and relationships, encourage healthier and longer-lasting relationships, lower the numbers of sexual partners and the sexual transmission of diseases, and reduce the depression and suicide that may result from confusion over sexual identity, lack of self-respect, and feelings of isolation. Negative social attitudes hurt not only homosexuals but all of society.
[edit] Male Sex Techniques
Male-to-male sexual practices include a wide array of activities. Some are entirely safe from the standpoint of sexually transmitted diseases, including infection with the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, or from the standpoint of physical injury; others, especially without the protection of a condom, are either risky or frankly dangerous.
The spectrum of male homosexual practices begins at the safe end with voyeurism—watching another or others having sex. For many gay men this vicarious activity produces extreme pleasure and may be their sole sexual aim, or it may be an accompaniment to their own masturbation, possibly to orgasm. Although in mainstream society voyeurism is generally considered a rude invasion of privacy, many gay men are willing to be observed, and some are actually excited by being observed having sex.
Another activity frequently practiced by gay men is masturbation in groups of two or more. This may be solo masturbation in the presence of others or mutual masturbation, where one masturbates the other, including “cycle jerks,” where one man masturbates the next, who masturbates the next, and so on. In the AIDS era, most major cities in the United States and Europe have developed “J/O Clubs,” that provide an environment in which gay men may masturbate together. Most clubs have strict rules that penises may only be touched with the hands and not enter mouths or anuses.
Kissing is as erotic for many gay men as it is for heterosexuals; however, some gay men think kissing is repulsive although they are willing to engage in oral-penile or oral-anal sex. For other gay men kissing may be their only or primary sexual aim.
Frontage is the term used for body rubbing. This is generally considered a safe sexual activity in which two men, often in association with kissing, hold each other tightly and rub their bodies, and especially their penises, against one another, often until climax.
Perhaps the most common form of sex between men is fellatio—oral-penile sex. Like most other sexual behaviors, this may be the main sexual aim or it may be a prelude to other forms of sexual activity. A particular form of fellatio is called “sixty-nine” because this position—two bodies head to crotch—looks like the numerals “6” and “9.” In this position, two persons may lick, kiss, and suck each other’s genitals for pleasure to the point of orgasm. It is generally thought that ejaculation into the partner’s mouth makes transmission of sexual diseases, including HIV, more likely, so in recent years partners are more likely to avoid it.
The mouth, lips, and tongue may also be applied to other parts of the male body, including the testicles, anus (“rimming”), nipples, ears, navel, feet, and hands. Such sexual activities are relatively risk free, except for oral-anal contact, which has the potential to spread diseases such as hepatitis A and amoebic dysentery.
Of the more common forms of gay male sex, perhaps the most risky for transmission of HIV is penile-anal sex. This occurs when one man’s penis is inserted in his partner’s anus and then stimulated with a series of thrusting movements designed to achieve orgasm. This not only provides pleasure to the “top,” or inserter of the penis, but most “bottoms” also find it intensely pleasurable to be penetrated and to have their prostate and rectum stimulated in this way. The danger of STDs and HIV in this activity are thought to accrue both from the ejaculate and from the rectal lining, which is easily torn or abraded, permitting easy access to the blood stream. Although many try to ejaculate outside the body, the desire to remain in one’s partner’s anus may be strong, and there is the possibility that small quantities of fluid before ejaculation may be capable of spreading infection. The use of condoms to block the transmission of HIV and other infections is highly recommended.
A relatively small proportion of gay men engage in what even gay men call “kinky” sexual behaviors: “water sports”—where one either urinates on or is urinated upon by one’s partner; “fisting”—where one either inserts or has one’s partner insert the hand (or “fist”) into the rectum; fetishes; “S & M” (sadism/masochism) and/or “B & D,” involving spanking, the use of whips, slings, handcuffs, etc.
